In 1530 Catholic Irish owned 100% of the land in Ireland. In 1703 they owned 14% of the land in Ireland.

From early times the land in the west of Ireland was under the control of landlords while tenant farmers maintained small holdings at little or no profit. Although they had to pay rent to the landlord the Irish peasantry were very attached to the land on which their forbearers had lived and would do almost anything to remain in the place of their ancestry.

Many landlords did NOT live in Ireland. Their properties were administered by local agents.

Some landlords, who actually lived on their estates, had a paternalistic relationship with their tenants. However, since the landlord had total economic control over his tenants, he also had control on the political and social relationships that existed under his domain.

Many tenants were "tenant at will" meaning they held no lease on the land, could be evicted at any time, and had no recourse in disagreements with the landlord. Tenant eviction and land agitation were issues in Ireland from at least the early 1700s when landlords determined that they could make more money from grazing than from the rents of their tenant framers.

Many land agitations issues were covered by the English press.

Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna (nee Browne) (1790-1846) was an English evangelist and writer who lived in Ireland from 1818 to 1824. Irish Recollection was first published in 1841. Much of the book is an anti Catholic diatribe. She makes this comment on eviction.

" On these occasions, a keeper was set over the property; some legal papers were served, and all the household goods, consisting of iron kettles, wooden stools, broken tables, a ragged blanket or two, and the little stores of potatoes, the sole support of the wretched inhabitants, were brought out, piled in a long row down the street, and "canted", that is, put up for sale, for the payment of perhaps, on or two pre cent, of the arrears."

Eviction was the most common way for a landlord to rid his land of unwanted tenants. Many of these evicted tenants made their way overseas to England, the Americas, and Australia.

See The Fenian Movement

TYPES DE FENIANS IRLANDIAS [Fenian Types, Ireland]

L'Univers Illustre

No date.

The Graphic June 4, 1870

HOW NOT TO PAY THE RENT

'In sooth," Cowper says, "the sorrow of such days is not to be expressed, when he that takes and he that pays are both alike distressed." That he who pays should be distressed is not to be wondered at, but that the receiver should be in like evil case would certainly be surprising if the poet had not given an all-sufficient reason in the fact that "well he knows each bumpkin of the clan, instead of paying what he owes, will cheat him if he can." This was written concerning tithes, but will apply equally well to the subject of our illustration, that bugbear of Irish politics, the rent, a matter in which it is held by some perfectly legitimate, we will not say to cheat, as that is rather a strong word, but to circumvent the landlords, who on the other hand, on the principle of diamond cut diamond, keep a sharper count of their tenants' earnings than is quite consonant with that personal freedom which we all like to enjoy. The season may have been a prolific one in the matter of potatoes, the pigs may have thriven, the cattle been free from disease, the harvest a fat one, but all this instead of being an unmixed cause of congratulation to the lucky tenant, raises, should he be only a tenant at will, a horrid spectre of increased rental, for well he knows that "a chiel," the land bailiff to wit, has been "takin' notes" that he has the whole docketted, and can tell within a reasonable margin what the yield of the farm, or it may be only a farmlet, has been, and will be ready, when rent-day comes round to report his worldly prosperity, and give the agent an excuse for adding another pound or so to the rent.

There is a practice much in favour with defendants to breach of promise cases, who, with a fine knowledge of the weakness of human nature, have observed that the ear is not the only organ to be assailed with appeals for merciful consideration, but that a beggar who in a decent cast might starve very comfortably, has only to tear his garment into shreds and refrain from washing to make a good livelihood. Putting these maxims in practice, with a view to the reduction of damages, they will select their worst clothes in which to appear before a jury of their countrymen, as though their tailors refused them credit, and ready money was a blessing for which they sighed in vain. The case is much the same with the tenants our artist has drawn; their wardrobes have been made to yield their refuse, perhaps a scarecrow had been robbed for the occasion, and their tongues are ready with a lamentable list of misfortunes as a vivid imagination can invent. Frost and blight have withered the crops, the murrain has fallen on their cattle, the rot has seized their sheep, the measles have destroyed their pigs, and in fine, there is no rent "sorra ha'porth". But there beside the agent is their natural enemy the bailiff, and it is to be a contest of wits between their protestations and shabby wardrobes and his figures; blarney sometimes getting the better of facts, sometimes being lamentably routed. An Irishman has a persuasive tongue, a quick invention, a ready wit, and driven from one post will retire skirmishing to another; but on the other hand, some Irish landlords have a genius for extracting rack rents from their land, and with such, "no rent", what ever plea may be brought forward in its palliation, has but one remedy-"Eviction." It is difficult to say from the illustration who will be victor in the present case, for while the tenants look plausible enough to soften the heart of the sheriff's officer, as their countryman Sheridan is once said to have done, the land agent has a countenance resembling in its expression the portrait of Sheridan's creation, Uncle Oliver.

• Murrain literally means disease. A highly contagious disease in cattle and sheep, it is mentioned in the Bible relating to the fifth plague of Egypt.

  Exodus 9:3 "Behold, the hand of the LORD is upon thy cattle which is in the field, upon the horses, upon the asses, upon the camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep: there shall be a very grievous murrain."

• Look at the clothing in Evictions . Did they also dress down for the evictions?

• Richard Brinsley Sheridan's comedy of manners School for Scandal examines "the deceptive nature of appearances, the fickleness of reputation, [and] the often disreputable guises behind which goodness and honesty can conceal itself". Sir Oliver, the uncle Oliver referred to in this article, assumes various disguises to test the integrity of several characters in the play.

The next week, on June 11, 1870, the Graphic ran the above image in contrast to the June 4th image. The same couple is now presented in their best clothes and with a different demeanor as the greet the parish priest outside of mass.

" The question of rent, on the present occasion, we may presume, has been settled; the bailiff has carried his point and the money has been produced, or the tenant has cajoled the steward into an abatement, or postponement, or what not; at any rate the evil day is past, and the tenant can appear without danger in his decent habit, which, by the time rent-day comes round once more, with its sorrows and anxieties, will be a s pitifully ragged as ever."

Mayo landlord, Lord Mountmorres (William Browne de Monmorency, 5th Viscount Mountmorres) was murdered at about 8:00 on Saturday evening September 25, 1880 on the road between Clonbur and Ebor Hall (his home) as he was driving himself from a magistrates meeting in Clunbar. He was shot six times, several times at very close range, and from the nature of the wounds must have died instantly. The perpetrators presumably escaped over the hills and across Lough Carrib. When the horse and empty carriage arrived at Ebor hall the servants went searching for Mountmorris.

While Mountmorris was portrayed in some newspaper articles as a kindly landlord, apparently he was not a popular with his tenants and had recently refused a reduction in rents to some of his tenants. The motive for the murder was never officially clarified and no one was ever convicted. However, the incident was believed to be associated with Land League activities.

1. Ebor Hall, the house of Lord Mountmorres. 2. The spot where he was murdered, and 3. Flanagan's cottage.

Note: I never know if images like these are meant to be ironic. The accompanying article was in general positive about Lord Mountmorres. However, juxtaposing the images of the house of the lord with the cottage of the peasant and the image of the gentleman in his carriage with the poverty stricken woman and child seems to emphasize the differences between the haves and have nots.

Excerpts from the accompanying article:

"An Irish nobleman, of ancient family and title, but of extremely impoverished state, resided in a lonely district of Galway with his wife and children; one of the poorest of country gentlemen, living the plainest style, hopeless of improving his fortunes, and deprived by comparative indigence of the enjoyment of social pleasures and honours befitting his legitimate rank. Of a quite, homely, studious disposition, and willing to do any good among his humblest neighbors.... He had but few tenants, and these had ever found him a consistent and indulgent landlord. But his position, not his personal character or conduct, made him a mark for the class hatred systematically provoked and organized to deeds of blood by the infamous conspirators of the Land League.....

"the poor half-ruined, well intentioned nobleman, endeavoring to do his duty as a county magistrate, and to keep up friendly relations with all classes of the people about him."

"Lord Mountmorris, we are told, never evicted any of his tenants for nonpayment of rent, though he must have wanted the rents badly to support his moderate household expenses."

"He lately had some fault to find with a herdsman in his employment, and dismissed the man from service, requiring him, at the same time, to quit the cottage allotted for the herdsman's dwelling. This man, however, claimed to be an agricultural tenant, and to have a right to hold the cottage and bit of ground. In order therefore to settle the question regarding the legal character of a piece of property, Lord Mountmorris sued for a formal degree of evection, which was granted upon sufficient evidence."

Flanagan and his wife were later suspected of being connected with the murder and were arrested. At the inquest into the death of Lord Viscount Mountmorris, Patrick Sweeney, an Irish speaker and the disgruntled former herd for Lord Mountmorris needed a translator in the court.

Illustrated London News October 8, 1880

Viscount Mountmorres, Sir William Browne de Montmorency, Baron Mountmorres of the Peerage of Ireland was born April 21, 1832. He succeeded his father as the fifth Peer and eleventh Baronet in January 1871. He was descendant of a Captain in Cromwell's Army. The family had once been wealthy but by William Browne's time were left with a small estate near Clonbur "in the narrow strip of rocky moorland that separates two considerable lakes, Laugh Carrib and Laugh Mask, forming a natural peninsula of Connemara."

He was said to have only 15 small holdings tenants with an income of only £300 a year. The house was "modest"... "with a space of lawn and wood around it on the slope of the hill, overlooking the beautiful expanse of Lough Carrib and its multitude of picturesque island."

Michael Davitt, the Irish national agrarian agitator, "held" that

"Lord Mountmorres was murdered because he "eked our his wretched income as a landlord" by doing spy's work for the Castle, and taking bribes."

(Diary of the Parnell Commission: Rev. from "The Daily News.". By John MacDonald, Great Britain. Special Commission to Inquire into Charges and Allegations against Certain)

It was pointed out in the Parnell Commission that Lord Mountmorres had become "unpopular long before he took eviction proceedings against Sweeney, which started in July, 1880".

The local population believed that "their landlord" had been "in constant communication with Dublin Castle" and that this had added to his increasing unpopularity.

"Lord Mountmorres became unpopular because of his known opposition to the League — an opposition which he professed in public" Witness, a police-Constable

"It came out that Lord Mountmorres had been under police protection months before the League was started in the district"

Diary of the Parnell commission By John Macdonald

"RECENT MURDERS IN IRELAND

LORD MOUNTMORRES'S VIOLENT DEATH

The meeting of magistrates, which was attended by Lord Mountmorres just previous to his death, had passed a resolution calling on the Government to adopt coercive measures in Ireland.

New York Times, September 28, 1880

Lady Mountmorres was granted £3,000 for the murder of her husband under the Crimes Act.

Interestingly enough there had been a threat on a previous Lord Mountmorres, who may have been William Browne's father, Hervey.

OUTRAGE ON VISCOUNT MOUNTMORRES.

We regret very much to find that a threatening notice has been served on Count MOUNTMORRES, Dean of Achonry, menacing him with assassination. The Roman Catholic clergy of the parish, we are glad to say, denounced those who were connected with the outrage in the most indignant terms. Lord MOUNTMORRES, when in this county, during the famine period, was most benevolent towards the poor, and built the Farrahy Agricultural School, now one of the most flourishing of these establishments. We should rejoice to learn that the cowardly rascals concerned in this proceeding were discovered and punished, as they so richly deserve to be. The offence for which his lordship has been threatened with assassination is the simple expression of the desire that interments should not take place in the grave ground of Achonry on Sundays while divine service was being celebrated in the church. -Cork Reporter.

Cumberland and Westmorland Newspaper Carlisle Journal September 21 1855

Ebor Hall, Clonbur, Galway, Residence of the late Lord Mountmorres

THE GRAPHIC, October 9, 1880

Rusheen, Where the Assassination Took Place.

(The Cross shows the spot here the body was found, and the Arrow the place from which the assassins fired)

THE MURDER OF LORD MOUNTMORRES IN IRELAND THE GRAPHIC, October 9, 1880

Note: I added the red arrows for clarity MLB

Charles Boycott, an Englishman by birth, rented a farm three miles from Ballinrobe, Co. Mayo from Lord Erne. Boycott also acted as estate agent for Lord Erne, who was an absentee landlord.

Tenants of Lord Erne asked for a reduction of their rents. Boycott not only refused but started evictions.

Land League leaders suggested that everyone in the locality refuse to deal with him. Soon he was without workers on his farm, the local merchants refused to sell to him, crowds booed him as he passed. He was, in effect, unable to continue to live as he had before.

The military was brought in to assure Boycott's safety. Orangemen from the north volunteered to help bring in Boycott's crops. The troops and Orangemen were booed by the locals.

The situation escalated as the press covered the incident. In the end Boycott left Ireland and returned to England.

"Boycotting" proved an effective means of change through social ostracism.

Lord Erne, John Crichton (1802-1885), was the third Earl of Erne and was an an Irish Representative Peer from 1845-1885. He inherited his title from his uncle, Abraham Creighton, in 1842. The family seat was in County Fremanagh, Ulster. Lord Erne held 31,389 acres of land in Fremanagh and 2,184 acres in Mayo. Captian Boycott was the agent for 1,550 acres near Lough Mask and Castlebar.

For more information on the Boycott story and for images from the International press covering the story go to Boycott now or at the bottom of the page.

A kind of rural Irish loan shark, the Gombeen man was a moneylender who charged exorbitant interest. The word comes from the Irish gaimbin=usury

SHOT DEAD

A tenant farmer named Mullen while returning from Ballinrobe market last night was fired upon by six men concealed behind a wall on the road to Hollymount. He died immediately, all the bullets taking effect. It is thought the murder originated in a land disputer. Nor arrests yet.

Oshkosh Wisconsin, December 21, 1880

Oshkosh Daily Northwestern

"Boycotting" continued throughout Ireland and the world to bring changes to socioeconomic situations.

Illustrated London News from January 1, 1881

Clearly boycotting in this instance meant more than not shopping in the store of this tradesman. The townsmen have come out to "groan" and make unpleasant noises and comments.

Unfortunately, the article that accompanied this picture was not included when I bought the image.

The Irish Land League was a political organization who's aim was to free the poor tenant farmers from the burden of the rents imposed by landlords.

The Land League wished to abolish landlordism and to enable each farmer to own his or her own land. The Irish National Land League was founded in Castlebar in October 1879. Prominent members were Charles Steward Parnell, Thomas Brennan, Michael Davitt, John Dillon, and Andrew Kettle.

The Land League organized tenant groups to withhold rent and resist evictions. The period from 1880 to 1892 was known as the Land War, a period of much agitation and violence.

In November 1880 Parnell and other members of the Land League were charged with seditious conspiracy. They were brought to trial in January 1881.

The Scots guards and other troops were sent to Dublin to prevent the outbreak of violence.

Unfortunately, the article that accompanied this picture was not included when I bought the image.

THE IRISH LAND LEAGUE; MR BOYTON BURNING THE DUKE OF LEINSTER'S LEASES ON A '"'98 PIKE" IN THE MARKET-PLACE OF KILDARE

Michael Boyton was an Irish American member of the Land League. He was also one of the 14 people brought to trial in Dublin in 1881 for seditious conspiracy. The demonstration depicted in this engraving occurred "on the eve" of the trial in Dublin.

The building in the background is the market house in Kildare.

The '98 Pike refers to the Irish Rebellion of 1798.

The Duke of Leinster in 1881 was Charles William FitzGerald, the 4th Duke of Leinster. He held 67,00 acres on his estate in Kildare. There were about 400 tenants holding from 75 to one hundred and twenty acres. Holders of leases on the Leinster estates were not compensated for any improvements they made on the property unless the had the written approval of the Duke.

DISTURBED IRELAND: A VISIT FROM "RORY OF THE HILLS"

Land League agitators appeared at night with blackened faces to threaten those who "resist the illegal mandates of the association."

"Rory of the Hills" was a signature adopted circa by agitators threading landlords and tenants who would not go along with the land reform movement.

Charles Joseph Kickham a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood wrote the Irish rebel poem "Rory of the Hill". Information on Kickham and the words to the poem are easily available on the Internet. James Joyce made allusions to this poem in Ulysses. It has also been set to music.

James Conner Roach wrote and performed in a melodrama called "Rory of the Hill" which was performed in New York City in 1895.

Rory of the Hills: A Tale of Irish Life a book by Robert Curtis.

ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS MARCH 26, 1881

On March 5, 1881 there was an "attempt by shooting" on the life of John Hearne of Killoshine cottage. Hearne was a Land Agent for the Mountmorrency Estate in Cloongowla. He was hit several times but walked home and survived the attack. Three men, Patrick Hession of Cloongowla and two of his nephews, Richard and John Nally of Ballykinave, Claremorris were charged with the attack but for some reason were not sent to trial.

The 1881 Arms Act proved

"an effective check on the possession and sale of arms because each applicant for a license had to be certified as loyal by the local police inspector"

Dear, dirty Dublin: a city in distress, 1899-1916 By Joseph V. O'Brien

THE STATE OF IREALND; SEARCHING FOR ARMS

Accompaning article missing.

SURRENDERING ARMS IN A PROCLAIMED DISTRICT, The Illustrated London times, July 30, 1881

The above image is a sketch from County Galway where as a result of Peace Preservation Act of 1881.

"It is the room of the local police barracks, where a sergeant and one constable are seated to receive the fire-arms, guns and pistols of various description, which all unlicensed persons, in the district are strictly required to bring in, and to deliver into the charge of the guardians of the public peace. A label is written and attached to each weapon so received, stating the name and address of its owner, and the price he would pretend to claim for it; but. Whether from sheer ignorance, or from impudent cunning, or with a derisive purpose, some of these people do not scruple to mention preposterous sums of money as the value they set upon worthless articles, which could be dangerous only to the shooter- old flint-locks, rusty barrels tied on with wire or sting, and some pieces lacking the hammer or trigger, priced at many shillings, when they are not worth as many pence for mere old iron. There are, however, a number of the old Enfield muzzle-loading rifles formerly used in the Army. The inspector will afterwards come to the barrack and make a correct valuation."

The Illustrated London Times, May 7, 1881

"The State of Ireland: Tilling the farm of an imprisoned Land Leaguer"

....." most of the prisoners are rather obscure persons, and there are a few of the peasant or small farmer class. In the case of some of these, who have left their farms in Mayo or Connemara, a demonstration of sympathy has been got up by assembling numbers of people, men and women, as shown in our Artist's Sketch, to dig and plant in their fields."

"The renewed prevalence of fierce outrages in Connemara has excited serious apprehensions. The murder of John Lyden, a caretaker in the service of Mr. Francis J. Graham, at Letterfrack, was a most shocking crime. On the night of Sunday, the 24th, nine armed men broke open the door of Lyden's house, dragged him and his son, Martin Lyden, out of bed, in the presence of his wife and young children, took them outside the house, and then fired a volley of bullets into the unfortunate old man, and finished by battering him with heavy stones; they then fired at his son, who fell, they thought, dead with four bullets in his body; but he is still live. The surgeons have no hope of his recovery. Two men, named Joyce and Walsh, have been arrested on the charge of taking part in this murder. At another place a bailiff, named King, was seized by a gang of these villains, and was roasted over a fire till his whole body was covered with blisters and the hair burnt off his head. At Deergrove, near Castlebar, and at Ballyhean, houses were attacked last week, in the night, and shots were fired in at the windows. In several instances bailiffs or hinds of the landlords have been savagely beaten and stoned, and cattle and horses have been cruelly mutilated."

Walter M Bourke was a wealthy West Irish landlord. He was born circa 1836 the son of Mr. J, Bourke, Crown Solicitor for Mayo County. Walter Bourke received a degree from Trinity college, Dublin. He owned two estates in Ireland, at Curraleagh (near Claremorris in County Mayo) and at Rahasane Park (in county Galway). He had made a fortune as a barrister in India before returning to Ireland to buy Rahasane. He inherited the property at Carraleagh.

He had several "disputes" with his tenants and was in the process of carrying out evictions at the time of his death.

The Illustrated London News of May 14, 1881 carried a story about Walter M Bourke evicting his tenants near Claremorris, Co Mayo. A year later he was shot near his estate in Galway.

The accompanying article indicates that it was extremely difficult to find process servers due to the hostile and dangerous conditions they met while trying to serve evictions notices. Walter Bourke, a Claremorris landlord and a candidate for a county constituency, took it upon himself to serve writs to his tenants at Curragh Leigh. He galloped up on horseback, strode into the house with his pistol drawn, and presented the writ to the surprised tenant. He was backed up by his servant who was also armed. At one point he spied one of his tenant, Malachy Fallon, in town and chased him into a building, up the stairs and from room to room until he cornered him in the garret where the poor fellow as obliged to accept the writ. [Illustrated London News, May 14, 1881]

Michael Scanlan of Middle Mase, Claremorris was one of six families evicted by Walter Bourke of Carraleigh, Claremorris. Michael and his family were forced to live in a sod hut constructed in a ditch by the side of the road. There was no room for their furniture and they were forced to keep their table and chair by the roadside. [Hansard's parliamentary debates, Volume 262, By Great Britain. Parliament, Thomas Curson Hansard]

Walter M Bourke owned a "moderate size estate" of 4,141 acres near Claremorris The 1878 rents on some parts of the Bourke estate were 57 per cent above the government valuation in 1878. On other parts of the estate they were 91 percent above the government valuation. Fifty families were evicted from the Bourke estate in 1881. Various reports stated that the land was of poor quality and that the rents were paid not from monies earned off the land by seasonal migration to England. When the seasonal migration was no longer profitable the tenants could not meet they rent. [Land and Popular Politics in Ireland: County Mayo from the Plantation to the to the Land War, By Donald E. Jordan]

CARRYING A GUN INTO CHURCH. A singular scene has just occurred at Claremorris. Mr. Walter Bourke, J.P., who has been Boycotted and his life threatened, attended mass with his family on Sunday, and carried a gun into the chapel with him. The people became excited, and demanded that he should leave the gun outside, which he refused to do. They then demanded that he should be put out himself, but the Rev. Canon Bourke persuaded him to go into the sacristy. The congregation still demanded the removal of Mr. Walter Bourke and the gun, but the Rev. gentleman declined to order his removal. The congregation then left in a body, carrying the Rev. Canon and his clerk with them in the crowd. Quiet was restored, and the congregation returned on Mr. Bourke, his family, and servants leaving the chapel. A memorial has been presented to the Lord Lieutenant by the Eev. Mr. Corbett, CC, complaining of Mr. Bourke bringing his gun into another chapel.

The Maitland Mercury & Hunter River General Advertiser

" He took an active part in the prosecution of Father Conway a few years ago. A few months ago he entered the church at Carraro, armed with a repeating rifle while mass was being celebrated. The priest ordered him to leave the church, and he escaped by a side door in order to avoid being mobbed.

New York Times, June 9, 1882

Walter Bourke and his military escort, Robert Wallace were shot in "board daylight" in a public place. The killers walked away carrying their own arms and the rifle and carbine they had taken from Bourke and Wallace.

It is believed that the shooting was work of the IRB (Irish Republican Brotherhood).

"Mr. Walter M Bourke, J. P., a barrister who had made a considerable fortune at the practice of his profession in India, and who had settled down as a landed gentleman, and his guard, Corporal Wallace, of the Royal Dragoons, were shot dead on the highroad at Ardrahan. Mr. Bourke was a Catholic, and had earned some considerable notoriety by attending mass at Carroroe Church with a repeating rifle, and would not leave the Church even at the request of the clergyman.

Reminiscences of John Adye Curran, k.c., late county court judge and chairman of quarter sessions; (1915)

1. Spot where Mr. Bourkes' body was found. 2. Where the body of Corporal Wallace lay. 3. Loophole to wall, through which the shots were fired. (Gate by which the murders afterwards came out)

SCENE OF THE MURDER OF MR. WALTER BOURKE AND CORPORAL WALLACE, AT ARDRAHAN, COUNTY, GALWAY

At Garkill, a hamlet near Belmullet on the north-west coast of Co, Mayo, there was a confrontation between local inhabitants and the police on October 28, 1881.

THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS Nov. 12, 1881

Grawkill "perched on the side of a mountain overlooking the Atlantic" consisted of "about a dozen houses of the meanest and poorest class". A process server accompanied by about 60 police was about to serve "summonses for the rates."

"The people of the neighborhood, seeing the police approaching, gathered to the number of about three hundred. When the police were ascending the mountain path that leads to the village, they were assaulted by the crowd, from the heights above, with showers of stones. The police charged them up the hill several times but they returned to the assault. The sub-inspector in command at length gave the order to fire, which was obeyed, and some of the shots took effect, but even after some of the rioters were wounded, they did not retire. Twenty-four shots were fired. An elderly woman who received a wound in the throat and a charge of buckshot in the chest, is dead, and a young woman who received a bullet on the left side. Many others were less seriously wounded. Several of the police were injured. More than twenty persons were arrested and sent to Castlebar Jail."

The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and officials of Dublin Castle had the authority to "proclaim" a meeting unlawful and further had to right to order force to suppress the meeting in question.

HARPERS WEEKLY, December 17, 1881

The Condition of Ireland — Posting the Government Proclamation in Connemara

Unfortunately, the relevant part of the accompany article is missing.

An article in the The illustrated London News of March 13, 1886 shows how the idea of boycotting took hold all over Ireland and was used as a method to push at the English dominance in society.

"The social condition of Ireland has in all ages been deplorable; from one case to another, that country has never been at peace for seven years in the course of seven centuries. The peculiar symptom exhibited at this moment of its chronic malady is the organized system of interference with private dealings and personal affairs by the arbitrary decrees of the local branches of the National League, formerly known as the Land League. These decrees are enforced by putting every man or woman who disobeys them under a species of interdict or excommunication, forbidding all members of the League, who are the majority of the neighbors, to render the commonest services of life to the obnoxious person."

""Here is and "emergency man," one specially employed by the Defense Association to take charge of the house from which a tenant has been evicted; the neighbouring baker and butcher have been prohibited from selling him food, so he is obliged to order it from a distant town, and the package, sent by the parcel post is handed to him though a window."

"A cartload of boycotted turf is stopped on the road, upset, and scattered, by a mischievous assembly of peasants; while the deputy of the National League, turning his back on this petty outrage, pretends not to be aware of it, and reads, United Ireland as if all were quite and serene.

"In another scene, the cart bringing provisions for a party of "caretaker" on a boycotted estate is waylaid by a family, man, wife, and boys who have been recently ejected from one of the farms, and whose insults might proceed to acts of violence but for the presence of armed police."

"The Kilkenny Hunt, being a pastime for the landed gentry, was severely boycotted, and here we see the farmers, on the bank of a stream, treating a gallant horseman as a trespasser, and driving him off when he attempts to land in their fields. What would the hard-riding, free-living, cross-county gallopers of Charles' Lever's entertaining tales have said to such an interruption of their sport?"

"These minor annoyances keep up a bad feeling between different classes, interfere with trade and industry, deprive home life of its comfort, and spoil the naturally pleasant temper of the Irish people. The continual reports of their occurrence have greatly prejudiced English minds against consideration of those plans for the benefit of Ireland which statesmen are disposed to entertain. It is extremely impolitic, on the part of leaders of the Irish political movement, to permit within reach of their influence, such unjustifiable exhibitions of spite and malice, which are likely to create a false idea of the national character, and to impede salutary legislation."

No date. Publication unknown.

Notice the difference in dress between these "ladies of the manor" and the peasant ladies on their estates as seen in other images.

The guards were provided by the government. It would be interesting to know how much the government spent on soldiers to escort "ladies of the manor" on visits during the "troubles" in the 1880s.

Boycotting of James and Norah Fitzmaurice, County Kerry 1888

"A Brutal agrarian murder was committed in the early hours of the morning of Jan. 31, 1888" in County Kerry. The victim was a feeble man of sixty-six years of age named James Fitzmaurice. Having retaken a farm from which he and his brother had been evicted, he was denounced as a land-grabber, and boycotted."

Norah Fitzmaurice gave evidence against the accused murderers, Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty, at the trial. They were convicted and sentenced to death. Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty were executed in April 1888. Norah Fitzmaurice was boycotted for testifying at her father's murder trail.

The Boycotting of Norah Fitzmaurice

"On January 31st, an agrarian murder of a remarkable cold-blooded and deliberate kind was committed near the village of Lixnaw, Kerry, an old man named James Fitzmaurice being assassinated in the presence of his daughter, Norah. Two men, who have since been executed, were afterwards charged with the crime, and Norah gave evidence on the part of the Crown against them. From that time onwards she was rigorously and vindictively boycotted. On Sunday, April 15th, she attended service at the Lixnaw Roman Catholic Chapel for the first time since the conviction of her father's murderers at the Wicklow Assizes in March. She was protected by twenty armed policemen, some of whom entered the chapel, while other remained outside. Just before the part of the service called "The Gospel" was reached, two men, named Thomas Dowling and Mortimer Galvin, got up off their knees and walked down the aisles; and, in consequence of signals given by them, the majority of the congregation, numbering about fifty persons, left the chapel and refused to return. No word was spoken to Norah Fitzmaurice herself. The result of these proceedings was that on April 21st, at a special Court held by Captain Massey and Mr. Cecil Roche, at Listowel, Dowling and Alvin were charged with intimidating Norah Fitzmaurice, and were each sentenced to imprisonment with hard labor for six months. The defendants appealed, and were admitted bail. We may add that an urgent appeal is being made to the loyalist of Great Britain and Ireland on behalf of Norah Fitzmaurice, her sister, and their widowed mother. Their lives are in such danger that they are continually guarded by police. They find it impossible to a labourer to work for them, and have no funds to employ men from a distance. Several influential gentlemen have undertaken to collect subscription; among them are the Ven. Archdeacon Orpen, the Rectory Tralee; S M Hussey, Esq., Tralee; and J A Frounde, Esq., 5 Onslow Gardens, London. S. W.

On delivering judgment Captain Massey said: "The case is a peculiar one, but is part and parcel of the dread system of boycotting which is carried on in this county. This instance of sympathy with murders surpassed all that has gone before, for it had led to the desecration by the people of their own house of worship". And Mr. Roche added: "The girl Norah Fitzmaurice had committed no offence against the laws of God or man; she simply told the truth, and brought to justice the ruffians who so cruelty and foully murdered her father. In any civilized country the poor girl would be an object of pity and compassion. Whereas she had been subjected to the most cruel persecution; her enemies had even t racked her into the house of God, and there exposed her to what was the greatest possible form of intimidation by forbidding others to worship in her presence."

See Religion for the accompaning picture.

The Graphic April 21, 1888

STUDIES FROM LIFE IN IRELAND — VIII

OUTSIDE THE CHAPEL — BOYCOTTED POLICE

The accompanying article is missing.

I assume the boycotted police were those who accompanied the agents who were serving eviction notices.

I am unsure what this image represents as the accompanying article was missing. However, I am pretty sure it is related to Land League issues and I am waiting to get an article I hope will shed some light on this image.

DISTURBED IRELAND: BEFORE THE MAGISTRATE

by A. O'Kellly (Aloysius O'Kelly born Dublin, Ireland, 1851-1926)

The Illustrated London News, February 5, 1881

No text accompanied this print when I bought it. A restricted access Internet site (Project Muse, O'Sullivan, Niamh. Imaging the Land War) suggests that this print is related to a land reform issue in Ireland.

The Illustrated London News, June 18, 1881

"THE LAND LEAGUE AGITATION IN IRELAND: A SHERIFF'S SALE OF CATTLE, TO PAY THE RENT"

The placards read: DOWN WITH LANDLORDISM, HOLD THE HARVEST AND THE LAND FOR THE PEOPLE,

According to the accompanying article few auctioneers could be found who were willing to officiate. Consequently, it was left to the sheriff or sub-sheriff to run the auction which was generally held in the market square. "These proceedings have during the last few months, been frequently attended with scenes of turbulence and riot".

"Emergency Committee" members (generally friends of the landlord) where in attendance to make bids if no other bidders came forth.

The crowd jeered, yelled and cursed as each lot came up.

"They assemble and march in procession to the place, with a band of music and banners; and, if they get possession of the cattle, will parade them, decorated with the Irish national colors, through the streets of the town."

The total number of "outrages" committed in May of 1881 was as follows: "Murder, 3; firing at a person, 5; assault on police, 7; aggravated assault, 14; assault endangering life, 2; assaults on bailiffs and process-servers, 6; cutting or maiming the person, 3; incendiary fire and arson, 24; burglary and robbery, 6; taking and holding forcible possession, 8; killing cutting or maiming cattle, 15; demand or robbery of arms, 1; riots and affrays, 10; administering unlawful oaths, 7; intimidation - by threatening letters or notices, 140; otherwise, 36; attacking houses, 11; resistance to legal process, 3; injury to property, 31; firing at dwellings, 5. the total number of outrages reported in the return for March was 146, and in April 295."..........

The total number of persons now detained in prison without trial, under the Coercion Act, is 110, of whom 49 are in Kilmainham Goal, Dublin".

THE CONDITIONS OF IRELAND "PLEASURES OF THE HUNT"

The image can be dated to around 1882 based on the mention of the recent publication of a pamphlet by Fortrell called "How to Become the Owner of Your Farm". The accompanying short article stated that things were generally quite in Ireland.

The image represents:

"a condition of things which has of late become quite common in various parts of Ireland, the peasantry turning out with sticks, stones, and other missiles to attack the hounds, horses and riders whenever they show themselves in the hunting-field."

1. Before We start for out twenty mile Drive to Mushroom Hill We are paraded and instructed "to take Notes of all" We may see, and to prevent a Breach of Peace"

2. Taking notes with Difficulties

3. "Thirteen Hares were killed after a most enjoyable Day's Sport (!?) and in a most sportsmanlike manner (Vide Local Newspaper).

Accompanying article:

"These sketches may be best explained by a leaf from Constable P. Murphy's note-book: —"Left Ballynamuch at 1:30 A.M., for Mushroom Hill, to prevent Land League Hunt taking place. Twenty Irish miles. March to the mountain. Crowd assembled with dogs. Men all armed with bludgeons. We are 'to prevent a breach of the peace, and to take notes of all we see.' Begor, we'd want a powerful note-book. I wonder would it be a breach of the peace to break my rifle over the returned Yankee blagyard's head? Mem. Ask the Head when we go home. 12:30 P.M. Raining like the divil. No more note-taking. The boys have just killed a hare, after a fine course of fifty yards. There are ten dogs at it, a big fellow, for fear it would escape, gave it a 'polthogue' with a wattle. The League will have fine soup these times. It is very cold. What the divil did they send us for I'd like to know. I wish I was back in Ballynamuck again. The rain is making porridge of my notes. No whiskey, and tobacco wet!" "

"These nationalists hunts often turned into festive occasions with hundreds of farmers and labourers gathering near a covert or woods. After much cheering and blowing of horns, not to mention some consumption of liquid refreshments along the way, they would move of with their dogs and hunt until they had killed enough hares and rabbits for their needs. Farmers who owned horses capable of clearing a low fence or narrow ditch would often join in the chase and ride after any four-footed game".

Nationalism and Popular Protest in Ireland By Charles H. E. Philpin, Stopping the Hunt 1881-1882

The Graphic, March 31, 1888

"A LEAGUE BAND IN THE RAIN"

Brass bands played at Land League meetings, evictions and havestings: Ballinrobe, Ballintubber, Ballyroan Brass Band , Ballyshannon, Claremorris Brass Band and more.

"...the Land League band turned out, playing round the town, and collecting the young and fiery spirits of the locality."

Ireland under the Land League: a narrative of personal experience By Charles Dalton Clifford Lloyd

From Harper's Weekly, March 24, 1888

"POLICE AND HUSSARS CHARGING THE PROCLAIMED MEETING AT ENNIS; SCENE IN THE COURTYARD"

The Illustrated London News, April 21, 1888

This image and the image that follows were on the same page of the Illustrated London News of April 21, 1888

"DISPERSING THE NATIONAL LEAGUE MEETING AT LOUGHREA

The Illustrated London News, April 21, 1888

In protest to a Coercion Act*: William O'Brien

"called a public meeting at Loughrea, which was perhaps the best proclaimed district in Ireland. An enormous crowd attended the meting from all parts of the County of Galway. But an army of soldiers and constabulary was poured into the town, the demonstration was proclaimed and suppressed.

Recollections of an Irish judge ... By Matthias M'Donnell Bodkin

"Meanwhile the Coercion Act has been further employed as an engine of oppression in the hopes of quelling the spirit of the tenants by imprisoning their leading men. On Agpril 8 another great meeting was held at Loughrea.........the people attended in vast multitudes, all with the National League cards in their hats.The Government proclaimed the meeting and endeavored to suppress and disperse it, but did not succeed in preventing Mr. O'Brien making his speech to a subsidiary meeting.

For his action on this occasion, and for attending the meeting, Mr. William O'Brien and twelve other persons were arrested and prosecuted, and but for some technical point, and for some irregulatrity in the proceedings, would long ago have been convicted and sent to prison."

Incidents of coercion: a journal of visits to Ireland in 1882 and 1888 By Baron George Shaw-Lefevre Eversley

"Obstruction — Scene in a disturbed district in Ireland"

The most famous of the hard times in Ireland was the "Great Famine" of the mid 1840s. However, famine was a continuous issue in Ireland.

"RELIEF OF IRISH DISTRESS; APPLYING FOR SEED POTATOES AT THE BOARD, CLONAKILTY UNION

Publication and date unknown. 1891 based on an article on back of image - Richard Lefevre Blunt new Bishop of Hull.

Most of the accompanying article about the "seed potatoes" is missing. However, enough remains to indicate that the distribution of seed potatoes was the responsibility of the local poor-law union.

Clonakilty is is west County Cork, Ireland.

In February 1891 the Local Government Board reported:

"Apart from the potato crop, the small farmers are well circumstanced, but they are confronted with a greater scarcity of potatoes than they have experienced for over thirty years and this fact will cause distress in each locality according to the extent to which the people rely for sustenance upon potatoes......

Report on agencies and methods for dealing with the unemployed By Great Britain. Board of Trade, 1893

The above two images are from one postcard that shows a before and after picture of the same area in Castlebar.

After centuries of oppression by English landlords the Irish peasant began to gain control of the land through a series of Acts that allowed them to purchase the land they had been living on:

• In 1885 the Ashbourne Land Purchase Act provided for a system of government-assisted land purchase, which enabled many tenants to buy out their landlords.
• The 1887 Land Act was an extension of the Ashbourne Land Act. It allowed excluded leaseholders into the system set up two years previous.
• The Land Act of 1891 created a board to purchase land and create holdings in the poorest areas in the western counties and a loan fund for tenants who wished to purchase their lands.
• The Wyndlam Act of 1903 provided loans to tenants at reduced interest for the purchase of land and gave bonuses to landlords who sold.
• The 1907 Evicted Tenants Act provided for compulsory sale of land needed for evicted tenants.

By 1921 two-thirds of land was in the hands of Irish tenants.